Commodifying convenience, cleanliness, and privacy: American public restroom design since 1851
Date
2006
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Publisher
University of Delaware
Abstract
Cultural beliefs often remain unstated because they are too obvious, or because they are too offensive. This thesis will discuss public restrooms, which have seldom been analyzed because they concern an aspect of human life that is generally not discussed. As a result, the objects associated with public restrooms become particularly informative. ☐ In the mid-19th century, American public restrooms were developed in response to overpopulation and poor sanitary conditions in urban areas such as New York. Inventors and reformers proposed public conveniences to alleviate the situation; however, city officials were reluctant to undergo expensive and controversial plumbing projects, and restroom provision remained limited. Nevertheless, American consumers demanded higher standards of living through plumbing until, by the last quarter of the century, several plumbing fixture companies developed to supply and profit from that demand. By the 20th century, Americans considered public conveniences a right, not a privilege. ☐ The concept of a clean and private public restroom went from inconceivable to inappropriate to marketable over the course of the 19th century. The complex cultural beliefs behind this progression can be found in the design of the restroom and its various fixtures. Supported by period journalism and historical texts, this thesis examines restroom objects in trade catalogs and patent records to discuss changing health standards, attitudes of and towards public users, and issues of consumerism and privacy since the mid-19th century.